Functionalist Views of Crime and Deviance

By Jason Taylor

12.07.23

Functionalism is a macro-level sociological perspective that seeks to understand how different aspects of society work together as a whole. Advocates of functionalism argue that society is a complex system of interrelated parts, where each part plays a role in maintaining the stability of the entire system. Key areas of focus for functionalist theories are the roles of social institutions such as schools, families, and the media. They look at how these institutions serve functions for society, such as preparing the workforce, socializing children, and upholding social order. Key thinkers in this field, including Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert K. Merton, were interested in how social institutions uphold societal norms and values.

Functionalists maintain that crime and deviance are a normal part of any society and can serve useful functions. They emphasise the role that crime and deviance play in maintaining social stability and unity. According to functionalists, crime and deviance are not out of the ordinary, but are in fact integral parts of a healthy society. While many may view crime and deviance as harmful, functionalists see them as contributing to social order and cohesion.

Émile Durkheim

A significant part of functionalist theory is influenced by the work of Émile Durkheim. Durkheim suggested that crime is both a normal and functional part of all societies.

Crime is not only observed in most societies of a particular species, but in all societies of all types. There is not one in which criminality does not exist, although it changes in form and the actions which are termed criminal are not everywhere the same. Yet everywhere and always there have been men who have conducted themselves in such a way as to bring down punishment upon their heads. (Durkheim, 1895, p. 98).

…crime is normal because it is completely impossible for any society entirely free of it to exist (Durkheim, 1895, p. 99).

Durkheim believed that shared norms and values are necessary for the ongoing survival of any society. However, there will always be some individuals whose behaviour deviates from these norms and values. Durkheim illustrates this with the example of a ‘community of saints.’ In such a community where everyone tries to adhere perfectly to social norms, minor infractions could be considered as deviant or even criminal.

Imagine a community of saints in an exemplary and perfect monastery. In it crime as such will be unknown, but faults that appear venial to the ordinary person will arouse the same scandal as does normal crime in ordinary consciences (Durkheim, 1895, p, 100).

In this imaginary ‘community of saints,’ everyday actions like sneezing or misspeaking might be considered major crimes.

Durkheim further argued that crime and deviant behaviour are necessary for maintaining social order. These behaviours can highlight societal issues or aspects of society that are not functioning well. For instance, rates of theft could suggest rising economic hardship, and increasing violence could suggest the need for schools to stress non-violent values more.

Thus crime is necessary. It is linked to the basic conditions of social life. but on this very account is useful, for the conditions to which it is bound are themselves indispensable to the normal evolution of morality and law (Durkheim, 1895, 101).

Moreover, public anger against criminal behaviour helps to strengthen social solidarity. When a serious crime happens, like a murder, people often come together to denounce the crime and the criminal. This sense of unity strengthens the community. In this sense, crime can be functional, because the resulting public anger strengthens societal convictions because the resulting outrage and anger … “far from shaking our convictions, has the effect on us of strengthening them even more” (Durkheim, 1893, p. 76).

Robert K. Merton

Robert K. Merton argued that crime often originates from a condition he termed ‘anomie’. Anomie describes a state of ‘normlessness’, which emerges from a mismatch between socially determined goals and the available means achieve them. In a society, for instance, where material success is highly valued but opportunities for achieving it are scarce, crime may become an attractive alternative for some individuals.

Merton (1938) identifies five ‘modes of adaptation’ resulting from this anomie:

1. Conformity: This refers to individuals who accept societal goals and strive towards them via legitimate means.
2. Innovation: Innovators embrace societal goals but employ illegitimate means to reach them. An individual aiming for wealth who lacks lucrative employment, for example, may resort to crime to accumulate wealth.
3. Ritualism: Ritualists embrace the means provided by society but abandon the pursuit of societal goals. This might be someone working in an unfulfilling job who has given up on career advancement.
4. Retreatism: Retreatists disengage both from socially accepted goals and the means to achieve them, like a person who, disenchanted with societal norms, succumbs to substance abuse.
5. Rebellion: Rebels refuse both societal goals and means, attempting instead to establish a new social order. This may be a person who joins a revolutionary movement, believing the current social order to be unjust.

Albert Cohen

Functionalism was also utilized by Albert Cohen (1955) to develop his theory of subcultural delinquency, linking crime to ‘status frustration’—the feeling of failure in achieving desired societal status. According to Cohen, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who strive for the status of the affluent may resort to crime to attain recognition, albeit through non-legal means. Cohen suggests that lower-class boys frustrated with their societal status form subcultures with their own norms and values, potentially glorifying crime and violence as means to achieve status.

Peer pressure significantly influences subcultural delinquency. Youth exposed to a circle of peers involved in crime and violence are more likely to participate in such activities. Peer pressure also reinforces subcultural norms and values, thus making deviation more challenging.

Gangs often exemplify subcultural delinquency, providing belonging and identity to those feeling excluded from mainstream culture. They also offer a way to earn status and respect, although often through illicit means.

Media plays a role in subcultural delinquency, as its portrayal of crime and violence can make such behaviour appealing to young people. The media may inadvertently provide information on how to commit crimes, simplifying youth’s involvement in criminal activities.

Various intervention programs have been devised to deter subcultural delinquency, emphasizing positive role models, opportunities for success, and stress management techniques. While some evidence indicates these programs can lower crime rates, further research is required to assess their long-term effects.

Evaluation

Functionalism has significantly shaped our understanding of crime and deviance, despite criticisms that it oversimplifies issues and overlooks individual motivations. Critics like Cullen and Messner (2007) question the ability of functionalist theories to explain why some individuals commit crimes while others do not.

However, the strength of functionalist theories lies in their macro-level view of crime, helping to understand how society contributes to crime’s creation and persistence. They also highlight the potential positive functions of crime, allowing us to view crime as a complex phenomenon with both negative and positive consequences. As Reiner (2007) suggests, crime can sometimes serve social control, fostering unity and strengthening social bonds. It may also instigate social change by highlighting areas of injustice or dysfunction in the social order.

References

Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. Free Press.

Cullen, F. T., & Messner, S. F. (2007). Theories of crime (5th ed.). Transaction Publishers.

Durkheim, É. (1964). The rules of sociological method. The Free Press.

Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.

Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.

Reiner, R. (2007). Crime and deviance. Oxford University Press.